托福tpo21阅读第3篇Autobiographical Memory题目解析
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Autobiographical Memory
自传式回忆
Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?
Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills.
Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a reasonable understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self becomes evident between the first and second years of life and shows rapid elaboration in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory.
A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own "life story" until they understand something about the general form stories take, that is, the structure of narratives. Knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about "what we did today" or "last week" or "last year," they guide the children's formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories.
A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a "theory of mind"—an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others—before they can talk about their own past memories. once children become capable of answering such questions as "What does it mean to remember?" and "What does it mean to know something?" improvements in memory seem to occur.
It may be that the developments just described are intertwined with and influence one another. Talking with parents about the past may enhance the development of the self-concept, for example, as well as help the child understand what it means to "remember." No doubt the ability to talk about one's past represents memory of a different level of complexity than simple recognition or recall.
2托福阅读文章中的隐藏考点
由于托福阅读考试中的时间比较紧张，导致同学们在考试的时候很容易忽视一些细节，例如一些隐含的知识点。今天为大家整理了托福阅读考试中，常见的隐藏考点，希望辅助大家能够更好地备考这些内容。
一、列举和并列句
列举指的是: First, Second, Third,等逐条列出。
并列句是指: A ， B and C ，即逐项列出。
它们共同的特征是列出二点或三点以上的条目。
该类型语言点常考的题型是“细节性问题”，主要有两种:
1. Which 题型
该题型只要求从并列的三顶中选一项作为答案，其它条目与题目无关。在这种情况下，往往题目的答案出自最后一个选项 。
2 . EXCEPT 题型
该题型俗称“三缺一”题型，即题目 4 个选项中有三个符合文章内容，剩下一个不符合，题目便是要求选出这个不符合文章内容的选项。例如: All of the following are mentioned as types of evidence concerning handedness EXCEPT ?
这种题型只适合于考并列、列举句，这是因为它要求其三个选项一定是文章中出现的，也就是并列或列举之处。利用这一特点.我们在读文章的时候就可多留意，如看到并列、列举句，可预想其有可能被考到;如发现题目中有“三缺一”题型，则应到并列、列举处找答案。
二、否定及转折句
否定句是指带有 NO 或 NOT ， NEVER 等否定词的句子，而转折句则指带有 HOWEVER ， BUT 或 RATHER 等关联词引导的句子，它们可以用下面的句型说明: A is not B ， as C ， but is D 。对于以上的句型常出“推断性问题”。
三、举例句
句中由 as 或 such as ， for example 等引导的短语或句子为举例句，常考“推断性问题”和“细节性问题”。上面句型中的 as C 为插入的举例句。
四、数字与年代
文中的数字、年代、日期等常常是出题者经常会做文章的考题点。
五、最高级及绝对性词汇
文章中若出现 must ， all ， only ， anyone ， always ， never 等绝对性词汇或 first ， most beautiful 等最高级词汇，往往是考题要点，一般出“细节性题目”。
这是因为它们都有一个共同的特点，那就是 概念绝对 ， 答案唯一 ，无论是出题还是做题，不会产出歧义和疑问，因此很容易出题，答案绝对正确。
相反地，如果文章中出现相对性的词汇、例如 Some of the people chose red hats,some chose green hats,and others blue ones. 其中 some 为相对性词汇，如果我们出这样一道题: What color hats did some people choose? 那么就没有唯一正确的答案，因为有可能为 red,green 或 blue ，给评卷带来困难。
六、比较级及比喻
如果文中含有 more than 或 as ， like ( a fly )等句型，则为比较级或比喻句结构，往往也是考题点，一般出“推断性题目”。
七、同位语及插入语
文章中带有由 that is ， . ， or 等词汇引导的名词词组，放在一个名词后面，为同位语;插入语是指副词、不定式、分词、从句等结构故在句首，句中或句尾，不做句子成分，但修饰整个句子、表达作者感情的语法结构。 这些用逗号隔开的持殊结构往往也是考查的重点，一般会出“细节性题目”。
八、因果句
句中若有如下结构或词汇的称为因果句:
(1) 因果连词: because ， since ， for ， as ， therefore ， so ， consequently 等
(2) 表示因果的动词: cause ， result in ， originate from 等。
3新托福阅读背景知识分享
托福阅读的复习过程中，同学们可以多了解一些相关的背景知识，这样也能够辅助我们更好地了解托福阅读文章。为经典整理了一些比较常考的背景知识，供大家参考复习。
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黑人文学
战后黑人文学更趋成熟。拉尔夫·埃利逊 (1914- )的小说《看不见的人》和鲍德温的散文，均已达到第一流
文学的水平。他们对种族不平等的抗议采取了更细腻、更深刻的表达方式。他们希望人们认识到黑人是具有全部人性的人。这个时期里，女诗人关德琳·布鲁克斯(1917-)的诗得到普遍好评;女剧作家洛伦·亨斯伯利(1930-1965)的剧本《太阳下的葡萄干》(1959)首创了黑人戏剧在百老汇上演的记录。勒鲁伊·琼斯(1934- )是新一代的黑人诗人，他给自己另外起了一个穆斯林名字，表示他对美国文化的鄙弃。
4新托福阅读真题
复习备考托福阅读，大家可以多进行各种考试真题的练习。为大家整理了7月7日的托福阅读考试的真题回忆，希望对大家接下来的复习备考有更好的帮助。详细内容如下:
托福阅读考试日期:
2021年7月7日
新托福阅读题目回忆:
Passage 2 lamarckism & epigeneticism
文章回忆:
有两种对与生物演化的理论
一种是lamarck(拉马克)提出的，一种是Darwin(达尔文)提出的
拉马克认为，生物重要的性状会受到环境的影响，进而遗传给后代个体。
达尔文认为，生物的重要形状由遗传继承，但是由环境造成的改变则不会遗传，这种学说也叫做natural selection。
其中一个支持达尔文的例子如下:
某种英格兰的moth，工业革命前，其翅膀多为浅色，是为了较好地与树皮的颜色融为一体进而达到躲避敌害的效果，但是工业革命后，由于树皮受污染颜色变深，其中一些moth的颜色也变深了，人们发现在这样的情况下，浅色moth照旧遗传，深色的虽然不遗传但是增大了个体存活的几率。
但是拉马克的支持者们无视研究的成果，依然有人将其学说奉为圭臬，譬如苏联时期的生物学家李森科，认为受环境影响的形状是可以遗传下去的，于是导致了苏联种植一系列作物的失败，这些事件不啻为是拉马克学说在1930年代的发扬光大。
另外一种支持达尔文学说的理论就是DNA了，DNA是一种化学物质，可以决定生物的性状，但是DNA的epigenetic，只会发生在生物个体中，并不发生在受精卵当中，这一地点是值得注意的。